A critical analysis of the Assessment and Action Record (AAR) documentation: Examining the educational experiences of Black youth-in-care in Ontario

Daniel Kikulwe; Christa Sato; Juliet Agyei

doi:10.25071/1929-8471.87

Auteurs-es

Daniel Kikulwe York University https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1473-8180
Christa Sato Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Juliet Agyei School of Social Work, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

DOI :

https://doi.org/10.25071/1929-8471.87

Mots-clés :

Black youth-in-care, Education, Ontario, Looking-after-children, Assessment and Action Record

Résumé

This article focuses on the Ontario Assessment and Action Record (AAR), used in child welfare to understand how this documentation supports (and fails to support) Black youth-in-care and their academic needs. We applied a critical review and analysis of three distinct but interconnected sources of data: 1) the AAR-C2-2016; 2) literature on the education of Black youth-in-care in Ontario; 3) policy and agency documents concerning how this group is faring. In our analysis of the AAR and its education dimension, findings suggest the AAR has been a race-neutral tool, which has implications in terms of how we conceptualize structural barriers faced by Black children and youth-in-care. We identified gaps and potential practice dilemmas for child welfare workers when using AAR documentation procedures. Using Critical Race Theory and the United Nations human rights framework, we argue that the AAR can be a tool to identify, monitor, and challenge oppression for Black children and youth-in-care who experience a continual negotiation of racialization alongside being a foster child. The AAR recordings can be harmful if they are simply a collection of information on the key areas of a child’s life. Prioritizing the academic needs of Black children in care is critical to social work and aligns with the commitments of One Vision, One Voice, Ontario’s Anti-Racism Strategic Plan as well as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, particularly in relation to the right to education.

Références

Abrams, L. S., & Moio, J. A. (2009). Critical race theory and the cultural competence dilemma in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2009.200700109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2009.200700109

Ahmed, S. (2006). The nonperformativity of antiracism. Meridians, 7(1), 104–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2979/MER.2006.7.1.104

Alberton, A. M., Angell, G. B., Gorey, K. M., & Grenier, S. (2020). Homelessness among Indigenous peoples in Canada: The impacts of child welfare involvement and educational achievement. Children and Youth Services Review, 111, 104846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104846 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104846

Anucha, U., Srikanthan, S., Siad-Togane, R., & Galabuzi, G.-E. (2017). Doing right together for Black youth: What we learned from the community engagement sessions for the Ontario Black Youth Action Plan. YouthREX. https://youthrex.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/YouthREX-Report-Doing-Right-Together-for-Black-Youth.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.15868/socialsector.33742

Baldwin, B. (2018). Black, white, and blue: Bias, profiling, and policing in the age of Black Lives Matter. Western New England Law Review, 40(3), 431–446. https://doi.org/10.31228/osf.io/qcr32 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31228/osf.io/qcr32

Bergen, H., & Abji, S. (2020). Facilitating the carceral pipeline: Social work’s role in funneling Newcomer children from the child protection system to jail and deportation. Affilia, 35(1), 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109919866165 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109919866165

Brackenreed, D. (2004). Teacher’s perceptions of the effects of testing accommodations. Exceptionality Education Canada, 14(1), 5–22.

Cénat, J. M., Noorishad, P.-G., Czechowski, K., McIntee, S.-E., & Mukunzi, J. N. (2020). Racial disparities in child welfare in Ontario (Canada) and training on ethnocultural diversity: An innovative mixed-methods study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 108, 104659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104659 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104659

Clandfield, D. (2014). Special education and streaming. In D. Clandfield, B. Curtis, G.-E. Galabuzi, A. G. San Vicente, D. W. Livingstone, & H. Smaller (Eds.), Restacking the deck: Streaming by class, race and gender in Ontario schools (Vol. 23, p. 72). Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.

Clarke, J. (2011). The challenges of child welfare involvement for Afro-Caribbean families in Toronto. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(2), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.010

Clarke, J., Hasford, J., Gudge, L., & Mills-Minster, S. (2018). Issue 2: Imagining a community-led, multi-service delivery model for Ontario child welfare: A framework for collaboration among African Canadian community partners. Journal of Law and Social Policy, 28(2), 26.

Clarke, J., Mills Minster, S., & Gudge, L. (2018). Public numbers, private pain: What is hidden behind the disproportionate removal of Black children and youth from families by Ontario child welfare? In S. Pashang, N. Khanlou, & J. Clarke (Eds.), Today’s youth and mental health (pp. 187–209). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64838-5_11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64838-5_11

Constance-Huggins, M. (2012). Critical Race Theory in social work education: A framework for addressing racial disparities. Critical Social Work, 13(2), 1–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/csw.v13i2.5861

Contenta, S., Monsebraaten, L., & Rankin, J. (2014, December 11). Why are so many black children in foster and group homes? The Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2014/12/11/why_are_so_many_black_children_in_foster_and_group_homes.html

Contenta, S., Monsebraaten, L., & Rankin, J. (2015, August 26). Black kids stay longest in care, CAS study shows. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/cas/2015/08/26/black-kids-stay-longest-in-care-cas-study-shows.html

Crenshaw, K. W. (2011). Twenty years of Critical Race Theory: Looking back to move forward. Connecticut Law Review, 43(5), 1253–1346.

Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical Race Theory: An introduction (2nd Revised ed. edition). NYU Press.

Flynn, R. J., Ghazal, H., Legault, L., Vandermeulen, G., & Petrick, S. (2004). Use of population measures and norms to identify resilient outcomes in young people in care: An exploratory study. Child and Family Social Work, 9(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00322.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00322.x

Goodman, D., & Johnson, N. (2017). Literature review: Black youth in child welfare care—The importance of developing an ethnic identity rooted in Black cultural pride. Child Welfare Institute, CAS Toronto. https://muslimchildrensaid.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/3-Black-Youth-in-Care-Ethnic-ID-Lit-Review-4.10.17-FINAL.pdf

Goodman, D., Vena, A.-M., Waldmann, A., Marajh, L., Karunananthan, R., Naghavi, F., Child Welfare Institute, Children’s Aid Society of Toronto, Green, R., Gregory, D., Chan, W., & Children’s Aid Foundation of Canada. (2018). Post-secondary education program review. Children’s Aid Foundation of Canada; Child Welfare Institute. http://www.childwelfareinstitute.torontocas.ca/sites/childwelfareinstitute/files/CAFC%20CWI%20PSE%20FINAL%20Report%20Mar%2012%202018.pdf

Government of Canada. (2019, June 25). Recognizing the International Decade for People of African Descent. Building a Foundation for Change: Canada’s Anti-Racism Strategy 2019–2022. https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/campaigns/anti-racism-engagement/anti-racism-strategy/international-decade-african-descent.html

Government of Ontario. (2017a). A better way forward: Ontario’s 3-year anti-racism strategic plan (p. 60) [Government]. Government of Canada. https://files.ontario.ca/ar-2001_ard_report_tagged_final-s.pdf

Government of Ontario. (2017b). Anti-Black racism strategy. https://files.ontario.ca/ar-2002_anti-black_racism_strategy_en.pdf

Government of Ontario. (2018). Policy directive: CW005-17 Collection and reporting of identity-based data [Government of Ontario]. Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services; Government of Ontario, Ministry of Children and Youth Services, Communications and Marketing Branch. http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/professionals/childwelfare/CYFSA/policy_directive_CW005-17.aspx

Hopps, J. G., Tourse, R. W. C., & Christian, O. (2002). From problems to personal resilience: Challenges and opportunities in practice with African American youth. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work: Innovation in Theory, Research & Practice, 11(1–2), 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1300/J051v11n01_03 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J051v11n01_03

Howard, T. C. (2008). Who really cares? The disenfranchisement of African American males in PreK-12 schools: A Critical Race Theory perspective. Teachers College Record, 110(5), 954–985.

James, C. E. (2015). Beyond education, brains and hard work: The aspirations and career trajectory of two Black young men. Alternate Routes: A Journal of Critical Social Research, 26. http://www.alternateroutes.ca/index.php/ar/article/view/22325

James, C. E., & Turner, T. (2017). Towards race equity in education: The schooling of Black students in the Greater Toronto Area. York University. https://edu.yorku.ca/files/2017/04/Towards-Race-Equity-in-Education-April-2017.pdf

Kikulwe, D., & Swift, K. J. (2017). Child protection: Policy translations. In L. G. Gingrich & S. Köngeter (Eds.), Transnational social policy: Social welfare in a world on the move (pp. 62–81). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315665498-4

King, B., Fallon, B., Boyd, R., Black, T., Antwi-Boasiako, K., & O’Connor, C. (2017). Factors associated with racial differences in child welfare investigative decision-making in Ontario, Canada. Child Abuse & Neglect, 73, 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.027

King, J. E. (2017). Education research in the Black liberation tradition: Return what you learn to the people. The Journal of Negro Education, 86(2), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.2.0095 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.2.0095

Knight, T., & Caveney, S. (1998). Assessment and Action Records: Will they promote good parenting? British Journal of Social Work, 28(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011315 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011315

Kokaliari, E. D., Roy, A. W., & Taylor, J. (2019). African American perspectives on racial disparities in child removals. Child Abuse & Neglect, 90, 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.023

Kovarikova, J. (2017). Exploring Youth Outcomes After Aging-Out of Care. Office of the Provincial Advocate for Children and Youth. https://cwrp.ca/sites/default/files/publications/en/report-exploring-youth-outcomes.pdf

Kufeldt, K., McGilligan, L., Klein, R., & Rideout, S. (2006). The Looking after Children Assessment process: Promoting resilient children and resilient workers. Families in Society, 87(4), 565–574. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3572 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3572

Kufeldt, K., Simard, M., Vachon, J., Baker, J., & Andrews, T.-L. (2000). Looking after children in Canada. The Social Development Partnerships Division of Human Resources Development Canada. https://unbscholar.lib.unb.ca/islandora/object/unbscholar%3A9016/

Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is Critical Race Theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/095183998236863 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/095183998236863

Ladson-Billings, G. (2000). Racialized discourses and ethnic epistemologies. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 257–277). SAGE Publications.

Lemay, R., & Ghazal, H. (2007). Looking After Children: A practitioner’s guide (Illustrated edition). University of Ottawa Press.

López, G. R. (2003). The (racially neutral) politics of education: A Critical Race Theory perspective. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 68–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X02239761 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X02239761

Maynard, R. (2017). Policing Black lives: State violence in Canada from slavery to the present. Fernwood Publishing.

Miller, M., Vincent, C., & Flynn, R. (2017). Users manual for the AAR-C2-2016. Centre for Research on Educational and Community Services CRECS. https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/37843/1/18.03.01%20Users%20Manual%20for%20the%20AAR-C2-2016%20%28August%202017%20version%29.pdf

Ministry of Education. (2004). The Individual Education Plan (IEP): A resource guide. Ministry of Education, Ontario. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/guide/resource/iepresguid.pdf

Ministry of the Solicitor General. (2020). Annual progress report—Ontario’s Anti-Racism Strategic Plan (p. 28) [Government]. Government of Ontario. https://files.ontario.ca/solgen-annual-progress-report-2020-anti-racism-strategic-plan-en-2020-09-20-v2.pdf

Mitchell, D. (2010). Education that fits: Review of international trends in the education of students with special educational needs. University Of Canterbury. https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/86011/Mitchell-Review-Final.pdf

Mohamud, F., Edwards, T., Antwi-Boasiako, K., William, K., King, J., Igor, E., & King, B. (2021). Racial disparity in the Ontario child welfare system: Conceptualizing policies and practices that drive involvement for Black families. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105711 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105711

Mollett, S. (2017). Irreconcilable differences? A postcolonial intersectional reading of gender, development and human rights in Latin America. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1277292 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1277292

Monsebraaten, L., & Contenta, S. (2017, June 30). Drop in number of Black children placed in care heralded as good start. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2017/06/30/drop-in-number-of-black-children-placed-in-care-heralded-as-good-start.html

Mosher, J., & Hewitt, J. (2018). Reimagining child welfare systems in Canada. Journal of Law and Social Policy, 28(1), 1–9.

Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies (OACAS). (2009). Building bridges to belonging: Promising practices for youth. Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies.

Office of the Prime Minister. (2018, January 30). Prime Minister announces that the Government of Canada will officially recognize the International Decade for People of African Descent [Government of Canada]. Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau. https://pm.gc.ca/en/news/news-releases/2018/01/30/prime-minister-announces-government-canada-will-officially-recognize

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (1989). OHCHR. Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2012). Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the Convention—Concluding observations: Canada. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/co/CRC-C-CAN-CO-3-4_en.pdf

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2020). Combined fifth and sixth reports submitted by Canada under article 44 of the Convention, due in 2018. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2047747/G2005597.pdf

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2018). Interrupted childhoods: Over-representation of Indigenous and Black children in Ontario child welfare. Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC). http://www3.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/Interrupted%20childhoods_Over-representation%20of%20Indigenous%20and%20Black%20children%20in%20Ontario%20child%20welfare_accessible.pdf

Pecora, P. J., & Huston, D. (2008). Why should child welfare and schools focus on minimising placement change as part of permanency planning for children? Social Work Now, 41, 19–27.

Polanyi, M., Johnston, L., Khanna, A., Dirie, S., & Kerr, M. (2014). The hidden epidemic: A report on child and family poverty in Toronto. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/socialplanningtoronto/pages/430/attachments/original/1472014900/cast-report2014-final-web71.pdf?1472014900

Provincial Advocate for Children & Youth. (2019). HairStory: Rooted – A firm foundation for the future of Black youth in Ontario’s systems of care. Provincial Advocate for Children & Youth. https://ocaarchives.files.wordpress.com/2019/03/hs-rooted-a-firm-foundation-for-black-youth.pdf

Provincial Advocate for Children and Youth. (2012). 25 is the new 21: The costs and benefits of providing extended care and maintenance to Ontario youth in care until age 25. The Office of the Provincial Advocate for Children and Youth. https://ocaarchives.files.wordpress.com/2019/01/25isthenew21.pdf

Rambally, R. T. (1995). The overrepresentation of Black youth in the Quebec social service system: Issues and perspectives. Canadian Social Work Review / Revue Canadienne de Service Social, 12(1), 85–97.

Reynolds, R., & Mayweather, D. (2017). Recounting racism, resistance, and repression: Examining the experiences and #hashtag activism of college students with critical race theory and counternarratives. Journal of Negro Education, 86(3), 283–304. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.3.0283 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.3.0283

Roos, L. E., Distasio, J., Bolton, S.-L., Katz, L. Y., Afifi, T. O., Isaak, C., Goering, P., Bruce, L., & Sareen, J. (2014). A history in-care predicts unique characteristics in a homeless population with mental illness. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(10), 1618–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.018

Slavin, R. E. (2019, February 7). Systems [Educational]. Robert Slavin’s Blog. https://robertslavinsblog.wordpress.com/2019/02/07/systems/

Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (1989). What works for students at risk: A research synthesis. Educational Leadership, 46(5), 4–13.

Turner, T. (2016a). One Vision One Voice: Changing the Ontario child welfare system to better serve African Canadians. Practice framework Part 1: Research report. Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies. http://www.oacas.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/One-Vision-One-Voice-Part-1_digital_english-May-2019.pdf

Turner, T. (2016b). One Vision One Voice: Changing the Ontario child welfare system to better serve African Canadians. Practice framework Part 2: Race equity practices. Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies. http://www.oacas.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/One-Vision-One-Voice-Part-2_digital_english-May-2019.pdf

Turner, T., Boyce, T., & Butler, A. (2020). An assessment of the needs of Black parents in Ontario: Evaluation of the innovative supports for Black parents initiative (Report 1). Turner Consulting Group Inc. https://www.turnerconsultinggroup.ca/uploads/2/9/5/6/29562979/report_1_-_needs_assessment_-_final_-_june_15.pdf

United Nations. (2014). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 18 November 2014. United Nations General Assembly. https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/RES/69/16

Youth Without Shelter. (n.d.). Youth homelessness. Youth Without Shelter. Retrieved August 29, 2021, from https://yws.on.ca/who-we-are/youth-homelessness/